X-bar theory
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=== Topmost hierarchy === | === Topmost hierarchy === | ||
| − | In the UNLarium approach, | + | In the UNLarium approach, sentence is considered to be an instance of CP, where subject is to be represented as the spec of IP. |
<pre> | <pre> | ||
| − | + | CP | |
| − | + | | | |
| − | + | CB | |
| − | + | / \ | |
| − | C | + | C IP |
| − | + | / \ | |
| − | + | subject IB | |
/ \ | / \ | ||
I VP | I VP | ||
</pre> | </pre> | ||
| + | C (i.e., the head of CP) is to be left empty in case of independent sentences (i.e., not introduced by any conjunction).<br> | ||
| + | I (i.e., the head of IP) is to be left empty in case of non-finite sentences (infinitive, gerund, participle) or in case of finite sentences made with simple tenses (simple present, simple past, etc). | ||
== Syntactic Roles == | == Syntactic Roles == | ||
Revision as of 19:02, 20 January 2010
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.
Contents |
X-bar theory
The syntactic framework of the UNLarium derives from the X-bar theory [1], which postulates that all human languages share certain structural similarities, including the same underlying syntactic structure, whose abstract configuration is depicted in the diagram below:
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB adjunct
/ \
X comp
|
head
In the above:
- X is the head, the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it.
- comp (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs)
- adjunct is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence)
- spec (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head
- XB (X-bar) is the general name for any of the intermediate projections derived from X
- XP (X-bar-bar, X-double-bar, X-phrase) is the maximal projection of X.
Constituents
The head, the complement, the specifier and the adjunct are said to be the constituents of the syntactic representation and define the four general universal syntactic roles.
Heads
In the X-bar diagram depicted above, the letter X is used to signify an arbitrary category. Thus, the X may become an N for noun, a V for verb, and so on. In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, there are eight different types of heads:
- N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc
- V = verbs
- J = adjectives
- A = adverbs[2]
- P = prepositions
- D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers
- I = auxiliary verbs
- C = conjunction
The heads define the nature of the phrase structures, thus:
- N is the head of the Noun Phrase (NP)
- V is the head of the Verbal Phrase (VP)
- J is the head of the Adjective Phrase (JP)
- A is the head of the Adverbial Phrase (AP)
- P is the head of the Prepositional Phrase (PP)
- D is the head of the Determiner Phrase (DP)
- I is the head of the Inflectional Phrase (IP)
- C is the head of the Complementizer Phrase (CP)
| Noun Phrase | Verbal Phrase | Adjective Phrase | Adverbial Phrase | Prepositional Phrase | Determiner Phrase | Inflectional Phrase | Complementizer Phrase |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NP
/ \
spec NB
/ \
NB adjunct
/ \
N comp
|
noun
|
VP
/ \
spec VB
/ \
VB adjunct
/ \
V comp
|
verb
|
JP
/ \
spec JB
/ \
JB adjunct
/ \
J comp
|
adjective
|
AP
/ \
spec AB
/ \
AB adjunct
/ \
A comp
|
adverb
|
PP
/ \
spec PB
/ \
PB adjunct
/ \
P comp
|
preposition
|
DP
/ \
spec DB
/ \
DB adjunct
/ \
D comp
|
determiner
|
IP
/ \
spec IB
/ \
IB adjunct
/ \
I comp
|
auxiliary verb
|
CP
/ \
spec CB
/ \
CB adjunct
/ \
C comp
|
conjunction
|
Specifiers
Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head:
- articles: the (book), a (book), etc.
- possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc.
- demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc.
- quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc.
- intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc.
- frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc.
- negative adverbs: not (go)
Complements
Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head:
- direct objects: (do) something, (give) something
- indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone
- complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter
- complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry
- complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her
- complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today
- complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come
Adjuncts
Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head:
- adjectives: beautiful (table)
- manner adverbs: speak (slowly)
- prepositional phrases: (table) of wood
etc.
Examples
| NP | VP | JP | PP |
|---|---|---|---|
NP
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ NB
/ / \
spec head comp
| | |
D N PP
| | |
the construction of Babel
|
VP
|
VB
/ \
/ \
/ \
VB \
/ \ \
head comp adjt
| | |
V N A
| | |
(he) bought something yesterday
|
JP
/ \
/ \
/ \
/ JB
/ / \
spec head comp
| | |
A J PP
| | |
(I'm) really interested in Chemistry
|
PP
|
PB
/ \
head N
| |
without notice
|
Phrases
Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are themselves complex syntactic structures (XPs) which are combined to form the sentence structure:
| PHRASE | STRUCTURE | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| XP | ||||
| SPEC | XB | |||
| XB | ADJT | |||
| HEAD | COMP | |||
| NP | DP | N | PP | JP,PP |
| VP | AP | V | NP,PP | PP,JP,AP |
| JP | AP | J | PP | AP,PP |
| AP | AP | A | PP | PP,AP |
| PP | AP | P | NP,JP,VP | AP |
| DP | AP | D | AP | |
| IP | NP | I | VP | AP |
| CP | AP | C | IP | AP |
Examples
| construction | the construction | the fateful construction | the fateful construction of Babel |
|---|---|---|---|
NP
|
NB
|
N
|
construction
|
NP
/ \
spec NB
| |
DP N
| |
DB construction
|
D
|
the
|
NP
/ \
spec NB
| / \
DP adjt N
| | |
DB JP construction
| |
D JB
| |
the J
|
fateful
|
NP
/ \
spec NB
| / \
DP adjt NB
| | / \
DB JP N comp
| | | |
D JB construction PP
| | |
the J PB
| / \
fateful P comp
| |
of NP
|
NB
|
N
|
Babel
|
Properties
Branching is binary
A key assumption of X-bar theory is that branching is always binary, if it occurs. This means that specifiers, complements and adjuncts are optional and that there can be as many XBs as necessary:
XP | XB | head |
XP
/ \
spec XB
|
head
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head comp
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB comp
/ \
X comp
|
head
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB adjt
/ \
XB comp
/ \
X comp
|
head
|
etc. |
Order is parametrized
The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts) is subject to language specific parametrization and may vary:
| right complement | left complement | right adjunct | left adjunct | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head comp
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
comp head
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
adjt head
|
etc. |
Topmost hierarchy
In the UNLarium approach, sentence is considered to be an instance of CP, where subject is to be represented as the spec of IP.
CP
|
CB
/ \
C IP
/ \
subject IB
/ \
I VP
C (i.e., the head of CP) is to be left empty in case of independent sentences (i.e., not introduced by any conjunction).
I (i.e., the head of IP) is to be left empty in case of non-finite sentences (infinitive, gerund, participle) or in case of finite sentences made with simple tenses (simple present, simple past, etc).
Syntactic Roles
In the UNLarium framework, the roles of the specifier, the complement and the adjunct are defined as head-driven relations as follows:
