X-bar theory
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The X-bar theory is claimed to describe a universal principle of natural languages, which is subject to language specific parametrization concerning the order of the constituents (left specification x right specification, left adjunction x right adjunction, left complementation x right complementation), but not the role of constituents (specifier, adjunct, complement, head) or the possible heads. | The X-bar theory is claimed to describe a universal principle of natural languages, which is subject to language specific parametrization concerning the order of the constituents (left specification x right specification, left adjunction x right adjunction, left complementation x right complementation), but not the role of constituents (specifier, adjunct, complement, head) or the possible heads. | ||
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== Heads == | == Heads == | ||
| − | In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories <ref>In the X-bar theory, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.</ref> | + | In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories <ref>In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.</ref> |
| − | *N = | + | *N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc (head of a Noun Phrase or NP) |
| − | *V = | + | *V = verbs (head of a Verb Phrase or VP) |
| − | *J = | + | *J = adjectives (head of an Adjective Phrase or JP) |
| − | *A = | + | *A = adverbs (head of an Adverb Phrase or AP) |
| − | *P = | + | *P = prepositions (head of a Prepositional Phrase or PP) |
| − | *D = | + | *D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers (head of a Determiner Phrase or DP) |
| − | *I = auxiliary verbs (head of an | + | *I = auxiliary verbs (head of an Inflectional Phrase or IP) |
| − | *C = conjunction (head of a | + | *C = conjunction (head of a Complementizer Phrase or CP) |
| + | == Specifiers == | ||
| + | Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head: | ||
| + | *articles: the (book), a (book), etc. | ||
| + | *possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc. | ||
| + | *demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc. | ||
| + | *quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc. | ||
| + | *intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc. | ||
| + | *frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc. | ||
| + | *negative adverbs: not (go) | ||
| + | == Complements == | ||
| + | Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head: | ||
| + | *direct objects: (do) something, (give) something | ||
| + | *indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone | ||
| + | *complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter | ||
| + | *complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry | ||
| + | *complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her | ||
| + | *complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today | ||
| + | *complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come | ||
| + | == Adjuncts == | ||
| + | Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head: | ||
| + | *adjectives: beautiful (table) | ||
| + | *manner adverbs: speak (slowly) | ||
| + | *prepositional phrases: (table) of wood | ||
| + | etc. | ||
| + | == Phrases == | ||
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== References == | == References == | ||
<references/> | <references/> | ||
Revision as of 16:00, 20 January 2010
The syntactic framework of the UNLarium derives from the X-bar theory [1], whose general structure is depicted below:
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB adjunct
/ \
X comp
|
head
In the above:
- X is the head, the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it.
- comp (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs)
- adjunct is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence)
- spec (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head
- XB (X-bar) is the general name for any of the intermediate projections derived from X
- XP (X-bar-bar, X-double-bar, X-phrase) is the maximal projection of X.
A key assumption of X-bar theory is that branching is always binary, if it occurs. This means that there can be as many XBs as necessary. Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are optional and are themselves syntactically complex, i.e., they correspond to XPs.
The X-bar theory is claimed to describe a universal principle of natural languages, which is subject to language specific parametrization concerning the order of the constituents (left specification x right specification, left adjunction x right adjunction, left complementation x right complementation), but not the role of constituents (specifier, adjunct, complement, head) or the possible heads.
Contents |
Heads
In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories [2]
- N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc (head of a Noun Phrase or NP)
- V = verbs (head of a Verb Phrase or VP)
- J = adjectives (head of an Adjective Phrase or JP)
- A = adverbs (head of an Adverb Phrase or AP)
- P = prepositions (head of a Prepositional Phrase or PP)
- D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers (head of a Determiner Phrase or DP)
- I = auxiliary verbs (head of an Inflectional Phrase or IP)
- C = conjunction (head of a Complementizer Phrase or CP)
Specifiers
Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head:
- articles: the (book), a (book), etc.
- possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc.
- demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc.
- quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc.
- intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc.
- frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc.
- negative adverbs: not (go)
Complements
Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head:
- direct objects: (do) something, (give) something
- indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone
- complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter
- complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry
- complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her
- complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today
- complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come
Adjuncts
Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head:
- adjectives: beautiful (table)
- manner adverbs: speak (slowly)
- prepositional phrases: (table) of wood
etc.
Phrases
References
- ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1970). Remarks on nominalization. In: R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.) Reading in English Transformational Grammar, 184-221. Waltham: Ginn.
- ↑ In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.
