X-bar theory
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− | !colspan= | + | !colspan=4|XP |
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!rowspan=3|SPEC | !rowspan=3|SPEC | ||
− | !colspan= | + | !colspan=3|XB |
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!colspan=2|XB | !colspan=2|XB | ||
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!COMP | !COMP | ||
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− | ! | + | !NP |
!DP | !DP | ||
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!N | !N | ||
!PP | !PP | ||
!JP,PP | !JP,PP | ||
|- | |- | ||
− | | | + | !VP |
− | | | + | !AP |
− | | | + | !V |
− | | | + | !NP,PP |
− | | | + | !PP,JP,AP |
+ | |- | ||
+ | !JP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | !J | ||
+ | !PP | ||
+ | !AP,PP | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | !A | ||
+ | !PP | ||
+ | !PP,AP | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | !PP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | !P | ||
+ | !NP,JP,VP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | |- | ||
+ | !DP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
+ | !D | ||
+ | ! | ||
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+ | |- | ||
+ | !IP | ||
+ | !NP | ||
+ | !I | ||
+ | !VP | ||
+ | !AP | ||
|- | |- | ||
− | + | !CP | |
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− | + | !C | |
− | + | !IP | |
− | + | !AP | |
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− | + | === Examples === | |
Revision as of 16:35, 20 January 2010
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.
Contents |
X-bar theory
The syntactic framework of the UNLarium derives from the X-bar theory [1], which postulates that all human languages share certain structural similarities, including the same underlying syntactic structure, whose abstract configuration is depicted in the diagram below:
XP / \ spec XB / \ XB adjunct / \ X comp | head
In the above:
- X is the head, the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it.
- comp (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs)
- adjunct is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence)
- spec (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head
- XB (X-bar) is the general name for any of the intermediate projections derived from X
- XP (X-bar-bar, X-double-bar, X-phrase) is the maximal projection of X.
A key assumption of X-bar theory is that branching is always binary, if it occurs. This means that specifiers, complements and adjuncts are optional and that there can be as many XBs as necessary:
XP | XB | head |
XP / \ spec XB | head |
XP | XB / \ head comp |
XP | XB / \ head adjt |
XP / \ spec XB / \ head adjt |
XP / \ spec XB / \ XB comp / \ X comp | head |
XP / \ spec XB / \ XB adjt / \ XB comp / \ X comp | head |
etc. |
The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts) is subject to language specific parametrization and may vary:
right complement | left complement | right adjunct | left adjunct | |
---|---|---|---|---|
XP | XB / \ head comp |
XP | XB / \ comp head |
XP | XB / \ head adjt |
XP | XB / \ adjt head |
etc. |
Constituents
Heads
In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, may be occupied by the following categories [2]
- N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc
- V = verbs
- J = adjectives
- A = adverbs
- P = prepositions
- D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers
- I = auxiliary verbs
- C = conjunction
The heads define the nature of the phrase structures, thus:
- N is the head of the Noun Phrase (NP)
- V is the head of the Verbal Phrase (VP)
- J is the head of the Adjectival Phrase (JP)
- A is the head of the Adverbial Phrase (AP)
- P is the head of the Prepositional Phrase (PP)
- D is the head of the Determiner Phrase (DP)
- I is the head of the Inflectional Phrase (IP)
- C is the head of the Complementizer Phrase (CP)
Specifiers
Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head:
- articles: the (book), a (book), etc.
- possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc.
- demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc.
- quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc.
- intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc.
- frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc.
- negative adverbs: not (go)
Complements
Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head:
- direct objects: (do) something, (give) something
- indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone
- complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter
- complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry
- complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her
- complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today
- complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come
Adjuncts
Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head:
- adjectives: beautiful (table)
- manner adverbs: speak (slowly)
- prepositional phrases: (table) of wood
etc.
Phrases
Specifiers, complements and adjuncts are themselves complex syntactic structures (XPs):
PHRASE | STRUCTURE | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
XP | ||||
SPEC | XB | |||
XB | ADJT | |||
HEAD | COMP | |||
NP | DP | N | PP | JP,PP |
VP | AP | V | NP,PP | PP,JP,AP |
JP | AP | J | PP | AP,PP |
AP | AP | A | PP | PP,AP |
PP | AP | P | NP,JP,VP | AP |
DP | AP | D | AP | |
IP | NP | I | VP | AP |
CP | AP | C | IP | AP |
Examples
which are combined to form the sentence structure:
construction | the construction | the fateful construction | the fateful construction of Babel |
---|---|---|---|
NP | NB | N | <b>construction</b> |
NP / \ spec NB | | DP N | | DB construction | D | the |
NP / \ spec NB | / \ DP adjt N | | | DB JP construction | | D JB | | the J | fateful |
NP / \ spec NB | / \ DP adjt NB | | / \ DB JP N comp | | | | D JB construction PP | | | the J PB | / \ fateful P comp | | of NP | NB | N | Babel |
References
- ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1970). Remarks on nominalization. In: R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.) Reading in English Transformational Grammar, 184-221. Waltham: Ginn.
- ↑ In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.