X-bar theory
From UNL Wiki
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| − | The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts) | + | The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts)is subject to language specific parametrization and may vary: |
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| − | == Heads == | + | == Constituents == |
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| + | === Heads === | ||
In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories <ref>In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.</ref> | In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories <ref>In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.</ref> | ||
*N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc (head of a Noun Phrase or NP) | *N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc (head of a Noun Phrase or NP) | ||
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*I = auxiliary verbs (head of an Inflectional Phrase or IP) | *I = auxiliary verbs (head of an Inflectional Phrase or IP) | ||
*C = conjunction (head of a Complementizer Phrase or CP) | *C = conjunction (head of a Complementizer Phrase or CP) | ||
| − | == Specifiers == | + | === Specifiers === |
Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head: | Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head: | ||
*articles: the (book), a (book), etc. | *articles: the (book), a (book), etc. | ||
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*frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc. | *frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc. | ||
*negative adverbs: not (go) | *negative adverbs: not (go) | ||
| − | == Complements == | + | === Complements === |
Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head: | Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head: | ||
*direct objects: (do) something, (give) something | *direct objects: (do) something, (give) something | ||
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*complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today | *complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today | ||
*complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come | *complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come | ||
| − | == Adjuncts == | + | === Adjuncts === |
Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head: | Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head: | ||
*adjectives: beautiful (table) | *adjectives: beautiful (table) | ||
Revision as of 16:02, 20 January 2010
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages.
Contents |
X-bar theory
The syntactic framework of the UNLarium derives from the X-bar theory [1], which postulates that all human languages share certain structural similarities, including the same underlying syntactic structure, whose abstract configuration is depicted in the diagram below:
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB adjunct
/ \
X comp
|
head
In the above:
- X is the head, the nucleus or the source of the whole syntactic structure, which is actually derived (or projected) out of it.
- comp (i.e., complement) is an internal argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which is necessary to the head to complete its meaning (e.g., objects of transitive verbs)
- adjunct is a word, phrase or clause which modifies the head but which is not syntactically required by it (adjuncts are expected to be extranuclear, i.e., removing an adjunct would leave a grammatically well-formed sentence)
- spec (i.e., specifier) is an external argument, i.e., a word, phrase or clause which qualifies (determines) the head
- XB (X-bar) is the general name for any of the intermediate projections derived from X
- XP (X-bar-bar, X-double-bar, X-phrase) is the maximal projection of X.
A key assumption of X-bar theory is that branching is always binary, if it occurs. This means that specifiers, complements and adjuncts are optional and that there can be as many XBs as necessary:
XP | XB | head |
XP
/ \
spec XB
|
head
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head comp
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB comp
/ \
X comp
|
head
|
XP
/ \
spec XB
/ \
XB adjt
/ \
XB comp
/ \
X comp
|
head
|
etc. |
The order of the constituents (specifiers, complements and adjuncts)is subject to language specific parametrization and may vary:
XP
|
XB
/ \
head comp
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
comp head
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
head adjt
|
XP
|
XB
/ \
adjt head
|
etc. |
| right complement | left complement | right adjunct | left adjunct |
Constituents
Heads
In the UNLarium approach to the X-bar theory, the heads, which should replace the letter X, and which define the nature of the phrase, may be occupied by the following categories [2]
- N = nouns and nominals: personal pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, nominalizations, etc (head of a Noun Phrase or NP)
- V = verbs (head of a Verb Phrase or VP)
- J = adjectives (head of an Adjective Phrase or JP)
- A = adverbs (head of an Adverb Phrase or AP)
- P = prepositions (head of a Prepositional Phrase or PP)
- D = determiners: articles, demonstrative determiners, possessive determiners, quantifiers (head of a Determiner Phrase or DP)
- I = auxiliary verbs (head of an Inflectional Phrase or IP)
- C = conjunction (head of a Complementizer Phrase or CP)
Specifiers
Specifiers are used to narrow the meaning intended by the head:
- articles: the (book), a (book), etc.
- possessive determiners: my (book), your (book), etc.
- demonstrative determiners: this (book), that (book), etc.
- quantifiers: no (answer), every (hour), etc.
- intensifiers (emphasizers, amplifiers, downtoners): very (expensive), quite (well), nearly (under), kind of (like), etc.
- frequency adverbs: always (go), never (go), usually (go), etc.
- negative adverbs: not (go)
Complements
Complements are used to complete the meaning intended by the head:
- direct objects: (do) something, (give) something
- indirect objects: (laugh at) something, (give to) someone
- complement of deverbals (i.e., nouns deriving from verbs): (construction of) the city, (arrival of) Peter
- complement of adjectives: (loyal) to the queen, (interested) in Chemistry
- complement of adverbs: (contrarily) to popular belief, (independently) from her
- complement of prepositions: (under) the table, (after) today
- complement of conjunctions: (and) Peter, (I don't know if) he'll come
Adjuncts
Adjuncts are used to modify the meaning intended by the head:
- adjectives: beautiful (table)
- manner adverbs: speak (slowly)
- prepositional phrases: (table) of wood
etc.
Phrases
References
- ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1970). Remarks on nominalization. In: R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum (eds.) Reading in English Transformational Grammar, 184-221. Waltham: Ginn.
- ↑ In the X-bar theory, differently from the UNLarium approach, adverbs are subsumed by prepositions and are not considered to be an independent lexical category.
